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THE THIRD TEMPLE'S HOLY OF HOLIES: ISRAEL'S NUCLEAR WEAPONS 投稿者 USAF Counterproliferation Center 日時 2002 年 7 月 09 日 14:09:20:

(回答先: イスラエル核兵器400基保有、米空軍報告書 投稿者 donga.com 日時 2002 年 7 月 09 日 13:42:17)


THE THIRD TEMPLE'S HOLY OF HOLIES:
ISRAEL'S NUCLEAR WEAPONS

by

Warner D. Farr, LTC, U.S. Army


THE THIRD TEMPLE'S HOLY OF HOLIES:
ISRAEL'S NUCLEAR WEAPONS

Warner D. Farr, LTC, U.S. Army

The Counterproliferation Papers

Future Warfare Series No. 2

USAF Counterproliferation Center

Air War College

Air University

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama


The Third Temple's Holy Of Holies:
Israel's Nuclear Weapons

Warner D. Farr, LTC, U.S. Army

September 1999

The Counterproliferation Papers Series was established by the USAF Counterproliferation Center to provide information and
analysis to U.S. national security policy-makers and USAF officers to assist them in countering the threat posed by adversaries
equipped with weapons of mass destruction. Copies of papers in this series are available from the USAF Counterproliferation
Center, 325 Chennault Circle, Maxwell AFB AL 36112-6427. The fax number is (334) 953-7538; phone (334) 953-7538.

Counterproliferation Paper No. 2
USAF Counterproliferation Center
Air War College

Air University
Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama 36112-6427

The internet address for the USAF Counterproliferation Center is:
http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-cps.htm

Contents:

Page

Disclaimer i

The Author ii

Acknowledgments iii

Abstract iv

I. Introduction 1

II. 1948-1962: With French Cooperation 3

III. 1963-1973: Seeing the Project Through to Completion 9

IV. 1974-1999: Bringing the Bomb Up the Basement Stairs 15

Appendix: Estimates of the Israeli Nuclear Arsenal 23

Notes 25

Disclaimer

The views expressed in this publication are those solely of the author and are not a statement of official policy or position of the
U.S. Government, the Department of Defense, the U.S. Army, or the USAF Counterproliferation Center.

The Author

Colonel Warner D. メRockyモ Farr, Medical Corps, Master Flight Surgeon, U.S. Army, graduated from the Air War College at
Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama before becoming the Command Surgeon, U.S. Army Special Operations Command at Fort
Bragg, North Carolina. He also serves as the Surgeon for the U.S. Army Special Forces Command, U.S. Army Civil Affairs and
Psychological Operations Command, and the U.S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School. With thirty-three
years of military service, he holds an Associate of Arts from the State University of New York, Bachelor of Science from
Northeast Louisiana University, Doctor of Medicine from the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Masters of
Public Health from the University of Texas, and has completed medical residencies in aerospace medicine, and anatomic and clinical
pathology. He is the only army officer to be board certified in these three specialties. Solo qualified in the TH-55A Army
helicopter, he received flight training in the T-37 and T-38 aircraft as part of his USAF School of Aerospace Medicine residency.

Colonel Farr was a Master Sergeant Special Forces medic prior to receiving a direct commission to second lieutenant. He is now
the senior Special Forces medical officer in the U.S. Army with prior assignments in the 5th, 7th, and 10th Special Forces Groups
(Airborne), 1st Special Forces, in Vietnam, the United States, and Germany. He has advised the 12th and 20th Special Forces
Groups (Airborne) in the reserves and national guard, served as Division Surgeon, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), and as
the Deputy Commander of the U.S. Army Aeromedical Center, Fort Rucker, Alabama.

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge the assistance, guidance and encouragement from my Air War College (AWC) faculty research advisor,
Dr. Andrew Terrill, instructor of the Air War College Arab-Israeli Wars course. Thanks are also due to the great aid of the Air
University librarians. The author is also indebted to Captain J. R. Saunders, USN and Colonel Robert Sutton, USAF. Who also
offered helpful suggestions.

Abstract

This paper is a history of the Israeli nuclear weapons program drawn from a review of unclassified sources. Israel began its search
for nuclear weapons at the inception of the state in 1948. As payment for Israeli participation in the Suez Crisis of 1956, France
provided nuclear expertise and constructed a reactor complex for Israel at Dimona capable of large-scale plutonium production and
reprocessing. The United States discovered the facility by 1958 and it was a subject of continual discussions between American
presidents and Israeli prime ministers. Israel used delay and deception to at first keep the United States at bay, and later used the
nuclear option as a bargaining chip for a consistent American conventional arms supply. After French disengagement in the early
1960s, Israel progressed on its own, including through several covert operations, to project completion. Before the 1967 Six-Day
War, they felt their nuclear facility threatened and reportedly assembled several nuclear devices. By the 1973 Yom Kippur War
Israel had a number of sophisticated nuclear bombs, deployed them, and considered using them. The Arabs may have limited their
war aims because of their knowledge of the Israeli nuclear weapons. Israel has most probably conducted several nuclear bomb
tests. They have continued to modernize and vertically proliferate and are now one of the world's larger nuclear powers. Using
メbomb in the basementモ nuclear opacity, Israel has been able to use its arsenal as a deterrent to the Arab world while not
technically violating American nonproliferation requirements.

The Third Temple's Holy of Holies:
Israel's Nuclear Weapons

Warner D. Farr

I. Introduction

This is the end of the Third Temple.

- Attributed to Moshe Dayan

during the Yom Kippur War1

As Zionists in Palestine watched World War II from their distant sideshow, what lessons were learned? The soldiers of the
Empire of Japan vowed on their emperor's sacred throne to fight to the death and not face the inevitability of an American victory.
Many Jews wondered if the Arabs would try to push them into the Mediterranean Sea. After the devastating American nuclear
attack on Japan, the soldier leaders of the empire reevaluated their fight to the death position. Did the bomb give the Japanese
permission to surrender and live? It obviously played a military role, a political role, and a peacemaking role. How close was the
mindset of the Samurai culture to the Islamic culture? Did David Ben-Gurion take note and wonder if the same would work for
Israel?2 Could Israel find the ultimate deterrent that would convince her opponents that they could never, ever succeed? Was
Israel's ability to cause a modern holocaust the best way to guarantee never having another one?

The use of unconventional weapons in the Middle East is not new. The British had used chemical artillery shells against the Turks
at the second battle of Gaza in 1917. They continued chemical shelling against the Shiites in Iraq in 1920 and used aerial chemicals
in the 1920s and 1930s in Iraq.3

Israel's involvement with nuclear technology starts at the founding of the state in 1948. Many talented Jewish scientists
immigrated to Palestine during the thirties and forties, in particular, Ernst David Bergmann. He would become the director of the
Israeli Atomic Energy Commission and the founder of Israel's efforts to develop nuclear weapons. Bergmann, a close friend and
advisor of Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, counseled that nuclear energy could compensate for Israel's poor natural
resources and small pool of military manpower. He pointed out that there was just one nuclear energy, not two, suggesting nuclear
weapons were part of the plan.4 As early as 1948, Israeli scientists actively explored the Negev Desert for uranium deposits on
orders from the Israeli Ministry of Defense. By 1950, they found low-grade deposits near Beersheba and Sidon and worked on a
low power method of heavy water production.5

The newly created Weizmann Institute of Science actively supported nuclear research by 1949, with Dr. Bergmann heading the
chemistry division. Promising students went overseas to study nuclear engineering and physics at Israeli government expense.
Israel secretly founded its own Atomic Energy Commission in 1952 and placed it under the control of the Defense Ministry.6
The foundations of a nuclear program were beginning to develop.

II. 1948-1962: With French Cooperation

It has always been our intention to develop a nuclear potential.

- Ephraim Katzir7

In 1949, Francis Perrin, a member of the French Atomic Energy Commission, nuclear physicist, and friend of Dr. Bergmann visited
the Weizmann Institute. He invited Israeli scientists to the new French nuclear research facility at Saclay. A joint research effort
was subsequently set up between the two nations. Perrin publicly stated in 1986 that French scientists working in America on the
Manhattan Project and in Canada during World War II were told they could use their knowledge in France provided they kept it a
secret.8 Perrin reportedly provided nuclear data to Israel on the same basis.9 One Israeli scientist worked at the U.S. Los Alamos
National Laboratory and may have directly brought expertise home.10

After the Second World War, France's nuclear research capability was quite limited. France had been a leading research center in
nuclear physics before World War II, but had fallen far behind the U.S., the U.S.S.R., the United Kingdom, and even Canada. Israel
and France were at a similar level of expertise after the war, and Israeli scientists could make significant contributions to the French
effort. Progress in nuclear science and technology in France and Israel remained closely linked throughout the early fifties. Israeli
scientists probably helped construct the G-1 plutonium production reactor and UP-1 reprocessing plant at Marcoule.11 France
profited from two Israeli patents on heavy water production and low-grade uranium enrichment.12 In the 1950s and into the early
1960s, France and Israel had close relations in many areas. France was Israel's principal arms supplier, and as instability spread
through French colonies in North Africa, Israel provided valuable intelligence obtained from contacts with sephardic Jews in those
countries.

The two nations collaborated, with the United Kingdom, in planning and staging the Suez Canal-Sinai operation against Egypt in
October 1956. The Suez Crisis became the real genesis of Israel's nuclear weapons production program. With the Czech-Egyptian
arms agreement in 1955, Israel became worried. When absorbed, the Soviet-bloc equipment would triple Egyptian military
strength. After Egypt's President Nasser closed the Straits of Tiran in 1953, Israeli Prime Minister Ben-Gurion ordered the
development of chemical munitions and other unconventional munitions, including nuclear.13 Six weeks before the Suez Canal
operation, Israel felt the time was right to approach France for assistance in building a nuclear reactor. Canada had set a precedent
a year earlier when it had agreed to build a 40-megawatt CIRUS reactor in India. Shimon Peres, the Director-General of the
Defense Ministry and aide to Prime Minister (and Defense Minister) David Ben-Gurion, and Bergmann met with members of the
CEA (France's Atomic Energy Commission). During September 1956, they reached an initial understanding to provide a research
reactor. The two countries concluded final agreements at a secret meeting outside Paris where they also finalized details of the
Suez Canal operation.14

For the United Kingdom and France, the Suez operation, launched on October 29, 1956, was a total disaster. Israel's part was a
military success, allowing it to occupy the entire Sinai Peninsula by 4 November, but the French and British canal invasion on 6
November was a political failure. Their attempt to advance south along the Suez Canal stopped due to a cease-fire under fierce
Soviet and U.S. pressure. Both nations pulled out, leaving Israel to face the pressure from the two superpowers alone. Soviet
Premier Bulganin and President Khrushchev issued an implicit threat of nuclear attack if Israel did not withdraw from the Sinai.

On 7 November 1956, a secret meeting was held between Israeli foreign minister Golda Meir, Shimon Peres, and French foreign and
defense ministers Christian Pineau and Maurice Bourges-Manoury. The French, embarrassed by their failure to support their ally
in the operation, found the Israelis deeply concerned about a Soviet threat. In this meeting, they substantially modified the initial
understanding beyond a research reactor. Peres secured an agreement from France to assist Israel in developing a nuclear deterrent.
After further months of negotiation, agreement was reached for an 18-megawatt (thermal) research reactor of the EL-3 type, along
with plutonium separation technology. France and Israel signed the agreement in October 1957.15 Later the reactor was officially
upgraded to 24 megawatts, but the actual specifications issued to engineers provided for core cooling ducts sufficient for up to
three times this power level, along with a plutonium plant of similar capacity. Data from insider reports revealed in 1986 would
estimate the power level at 125-150 megawatts.16 The reactor, not connected to turbines for power production, needed this
increase in size only to increase its plutonium production. How this upgrade came about remains unknown, but
Bourges-Maunoury, replacing Mollet as French prime minister, may have contributed to it.17 Shimon Peres, the guiding hand in
the Israeli nuclear program, had a close relationship with Bourges-Maunoury and probably helped him politically.18

Why was France so eager to help Israel? DeMollet and then de Gaulle had a place for Israel within their strategic vision. A nuclear
Israel could be a counterforce against Egypt in France's fight in Algeria. Egypt was openly aiding the rebel forces there. France
also wanted to obtain the bomb itself. The United States had embargoed certain nuclear enabling computer technology from
France. Israel could get the technology from America and pass it through to France. The U.S. furnished Israel heavy water, under
the Atoms for Peace program, for the small research reactor at Soreq. France could use this heavy water. Since France was some
years away from nuclear testing and success, Israeli science was an insurance policy in case of technical problems in France's own
program.19 The Israeli intelligence community's knowledge of past French (especially Vichy) anti-Semitic transgressions and the
continued presence of former Nazi collaborators in French intelligence provided the Israelis with some blackmail opportunities.20
The cooperation was so close that Israel worked with France on the preproduction design of early Mirage jet aircraft, designed to
be capable of delivering nuclear bombs.21

French experts secretly built the Israeli reactor underground at Dimona, in the Negev desert of southern Israel near Beersheba.
Hundreds of French engineers and technicians filled Beersheba, the biggest town in the Negev. Many of the same contractors who
built Marcoule were involved. SON (a French firm) built the plutonium separation plants in both France and Israel. The ground
was broken for the EL-102 reactor (as it was known to France) in early 1958.

Israel used many subterfuges to conceal activity at Dimona. It called the plant a manganese plant, and rarely, a textile plant. The
United States by the end of 1958 had taken pictures of the project from U-2 spy planes, and identified the site as a probable
reactor complex. The concentration of Frenchmen was also impossible to hide from ground observers. In 1960, before the reactor
was operating, France, now under the leadership of de Gaulle, reconsidered and decided to suspend the project. After several
months of negotiation, they reached an agreement in November that allowed the reactor to proceed if Israel promised not to make
nuclear weapons and to announce the project to the world. Work on the plutonium reprocessing plant halted. On 2 December
1960, before Israel could make announcements, the U.S. State Department issued a statement that Israel had a secret nuclear
installation. By 16 December, this became public knowledge with its appearance in the New York Times. On 21 December,
Ben-Gurion announced that Israel was building a 24-megawatt reactor メfor peaceful purposes.モ22

Over the next year, relations between the U.S. and Israel became strained over the Dimona reactor. The U.S. accepted Israel's
assertions at face value publicly, but exerted pressure privately. Although Israel allowed a cursory inspection by well known
American physicists Eugene Wigner and I. I. Rabi, Prime Minister Ben-Gurion consistently refused to allow regular international
inspections. The final resolution between the U.S. and Israel was a commitment from Israel to use the facility for peaceful
purposes, and to admit an U.S. inspection team twice a year. These inspections began in 1962 and continued until 1969.
Inspectors saw only the above ground part of the buildings, not the many levels underground and the visit frequency was never
more than once a year. The above ground areas had simulated control rooms, and access to the underground areas was kept hidden
while the inspectors were present. Elevators leading to the secret underground plutonium reprocessing plant were actually bricked
over.23 Much of the information on these inspections and the political maneuvering around it has just been declassified.24

One interpretation of Ben-Gurion's メpeaceful purposesモ pledge given to America is that he
interpreted it to mean that nuclear weapon development was not excluded if used strictly for
defensive, and not offensive purposes. Israel's security position in the late fifties and early sixties
was far more precarious than now. After three wars, with a robust domestic arms industry and a
reliable defense supply line from the U.S., Israel felt much more secure. During the fifties and early
sixties a number of attempts by Israel to obtain security guarantees from the U.S. to place Israel
under the U.S. nuclear umbrella like NATO or Japan, were unsuccessful. If the U.S. had conducted a
forward-looking policy to restrain Israel's proliferation, along with a sure defense agreement, we
could have prevented the development of Israel's nuclear arsenal.

One common discussion in the literature concerns testing of Israeli nuclear devices. In the early
phases, the amount of collaboration between the French and Israeli nuclear weapons design
programs made testing unnecessary. In addition, although their main efforts were with plutonium,
the Israelis may have amassed enough uranium for gun-assembled type bombs which, like the
Hiroshima bomb, require no testing. One expert postulated, based on unnamed sources, that the
French nuclear test in 1960 made two nuclear powers not oneムsuch was the depth of
collaboration.25 There were several Israeli observers at the French nuclear tests and the Israelis
had メunrestricted access to French nuclear test explosion data.モ26 Israel also supplied essential
technology and hardware.27 The French reportedly shipped reprocessed plutonium back to Israel as
part of their repayment for Israeli scientific help.

However, this constant, decade long, French cooperation and support was soon to end and Israel would have to go it alone.

III. 1963-1973: Seeing the Project to Completion

To act in such a way that the Jews who died in the gas chambers would be the last Jews to die without defending themselves.

- Golda Meir28

Israel would soon need its own, independent, capabilities to complete its nuclear program. Only five countries had facilities for
uranium enrichment: the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, and China. The Nuclear Materials and
Equipment Corporation, or NUMEC, in Apollo, Pennsylvania was a small fuel rod fabrication plant. In 1965, the U.S.
government accused Dr. Zalman Shapiro, the corporation president, of メlosingモ 200 pounds of highly enriched uranium. Although
investigated by the Atomic Energy Commission, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and other
government agencies and inquiring reporters, no answers were available in what was termed the Apollo Affair.29 Many remain
convinced that the Israelis received 200 pounds of enriched uranium sometime before 1965.30 One source links Rafi Eitan, an
Israeli Mossad agent and later the handler of spy Jonathan Pollard, with NUMEC.31 In the 1990s when the NUMEC plant was
disassembled, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission found over 100 kilograms of plutonium in the structural components of the
contaminated plant, casting doubt on 200 pounds going to Israel.32

The joint venture with France gave Israel several ingredients for nuclear weapons construction: a production reactor, a factory to
extract plutonium from the spent fuel, and the design. In 1962, the Dimona reactor went critical; the French resumed work on the
underground plutonium reprocessing plant, and completed it in 1964 or 1965. The acquisition of this reactor and related
technologies was clearly intended for military purposes from the outset (not メdual-useモ), as the reactor has no other function. The
security at Dimona (officially the Negev Nuclear Research Center) was particularly stringent. For straying into Dimona's airspace,
the Israelis shot down one of their own Mirage fighters during the Six-Day War. The Israelis also shot down a Libyan airliner with
104 passengers, in 1973, which had strayed over the Sinai.33 There is little doubt that some time in the late sixties Israel became
the sixth nation to manufacture nuclear weapons. Other things they needed were extra uranium and extra heavy water to run the
reactor at a higher rate. Norway, France, and the United States provided the heavy water and メOperation Plumbatモ provided the
uranium.

After the 1967 war, France stopped supplies of uranium to Israel. These supplies were from former French colonies of Gabon,
Niger, and the Central Africa Republic.34 Israel had small amounts of uranium from Negev phosphate mines and had bought some
from Argentina and South Africa, but not in the large quantities supplied by the French. Through a complicated undercover
operation, the Israelis obtained uranium oxide, known as yellow cake, held in a stockpile in Antwerp. Using a West German front
company and a high seas transfer from one ship to another in the Mediterranean, they obtained 200 tons of yellow cake. The
smugglers labeled the 560 sealed oil drums メPlumbat,モ which means lead, hence メOperation Plumbat.モ35 The West German
government may have been involved directly but remained undercover to avoid antagonizing the Soviets or Arabs.36 Israeli
intelligence information on the Nazi past of some West German officials may have provided the motivation.37

Norway sold 20 tons of heavy water to Israel in 1959 for use in an experimental power reactor. Norway insisted on the right to
inspect the heavy water for 32 years, but did so only once, in April 1961, while it was still in storage barrels at Dimona. Israel
simply promised that the heavy water was for peaceful purposes. In addition, quantities much more than what would be required
for the peaceful purpose reactors were imported. Norway either colluded or at the least was very slow to ask to inspect as the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) rules required.38 Norway and Israel concluded an agreement in 1990 for Israel to sell
back 10.5 tons of the heavy water to Norway. Recent calculations reveal that Israel has used two tons and will retain eight tons
more.39

Author Seymour Hersh, writing in the Samson Option says Prime Minister Levi Eshkol delayed starting weapons production
even after Dimona was finished.40 The reactor operated and the plutonium collected, but remained unseparated. The first
extraction of plutonium probably occurred in late 1965. By 1966, enough plutonium was on hand to develop a weapon in time for
the Six-Day War in 1967. Some type of non-nuclear test, perhaps a zero yield or implosion test, occurred on November 2, 1966.
After this time, considerable collaboration between Israel and South Africa developed and continued through the 1970s and 1980s.
South Africa became Israel's primary supplier of uranium for Dimona. A Center for Nonproliferation Studies report lists four
separate Israel-South Africa メclandestine nuclear deals.モ Three concerned yellowcake and one was tritium.41 Other sources of
yellowcake may have included Portugal.42

Egypt attempted unsuccessfully to obtain nuclear weapons from the Soviet Union both before and after the Six-Day War.
President Nasser received from the Soviet Union a questionable nuclear guarantee instead and declared that Egypt would develop
its own nuclear program.43 His rhetoric of 1965 and 1966 about preventive war and Israeli nuclear weapons coupled with
overflights of the Dimona rector contributed to the tensions that led to war. The Egyptian Air Force claims to have first overflown
Dimona and recognized the existence of a nuclear reactor in 1965.44 Of the 50 American HAWK antiaircraft missiles in Israeli
hands, half ringed Dimona by 1965.45 Israel considered the Egyptian overflights of May 16, 1967 as possible pre-strike
reconnaissance. One source lists such Egyptian overflights, along with United Nations peacekeeper withdrawal and Egyptian
troop movements into the Sinai, as one of the three メtripwiresモ which would drive Israel to war.46 There was an Egyptian military
plan to attack Dimona at the start of any war but Nasser vetoed it.47 He believed Israel would have the bomb in 1968.48 Israel
assembled two nuclear bombs and ten days later went to war.49 Nasser's plan, if he had one, may have been to gain and
consolidate territorial gains before Israel had a nuclear option.50 He was two weeks too late.

The Israelis aggressively pursued an aircraft delivery system from the United States. President Johnson was less emphatic about
nonproliferation than President Kennedy-or perhaps had more pressing concerns, such as Vietnam. He had a long history of both
Jewish friends and pressing political contributors coupled with some first hand experience of the Holocaust, having toured
concentration camps at the end of World War II.51 Israel pressed him hard for aircraft (A-4E Skyhawks initially and F-4E
Phantoms later) and obtained agreement in 1966 under the condition that the aircraft would not be used to deliver nuclear weapons.
The State Department attempted to link the aircraft purchases to continued inspection visits. President Johnson overruled the
State Department concerning Dimona inspections.52 Although denied at the time, America delivered the F-4Es, on September 5,
1969, with nuclear capable hardware intact.53

The Samson Option states that Moshe Dayan gave the go-ahead for starting weapon production in early 1968, putting the
plutonium separation plant into full operation. Israel began producing three to five bombs a year. The book Critical Mass
asserts that Israel had two bombs in 1967, and that Prime Minister Eshkol ordered them armed in Israel's first nuclear alert during
the Six-Day War.54 Avner Cohen in his recent book, Israel and the Bomb, agrees that Israel had a deliverable nuclear capability
in the 1967 war. He quotes Munya Mardor, leader of Rafael, the Armament Development Authority, and other unnamed sources,
that Israel メcobbled togetherモ two deliverable devices.55

Having the bomb meant articulating, even if secretly, a use doctrine. In addition to the メSamson Optionモ of last resort, other
triggers for nuclear use may have included successful Arab penetration of populated areas, destruction of the Israeli Air Force,
massive air strikes or chemical/biological strikes on Israeli cities, and Arab use of nuclear weapons.56

In 1971, Israel began purchasing krytrons, ultra high-speed electronic switching tubes that are メdual-use," having both industrial
and nuclear weapons applications as detonators. In the 1980s, the United States charged an American, Richard Smith (or Smyth),
with smuggling 810 krytrons to Israel.57 He vanished before trial and reportedly lives outside Tel Aviv. The Israelis apologized
for the action saying that the krytrons were for medical research.58 Israel returned 469 of the krytrons but the rest, they declared,
had been destroyed in testing conventional weapons. Some believe they went to South Africa.59 Smyth has also been reported to
have been involved in a 1972 smuggling operation to obtain solid rocket fuel binder compounds for the Jericho II missile and
guidance component hardware.60 Observers point to the Jericho missile itself as proof of a nuclear capability as it is not suited to
the delivery of conventional munitions.61

On the afternoon of 6 October 1973, Egypt and Syria attacked Israel in a coordinated surprise attack, beginning the Yom Kippur
War. Caught with only regular forces on duty, augmented by reservists with a low readiness level, Israeli front lines crumbled. By
early afternoon on 7 October, no effective forces were in the southern Golan Heights and Syrian forces had reached the edge of the
plateau, overlooking the Jordan River. This crisis brought Israel to its second nuclear alert.

Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, obviously not at his best at a press briefing, was, according to Time magazine, rattled enough to
later tell the prime minister that メthis is the end of the third temple,モ referring to an impending collapse of the state of Israel.
メTempleモ was also the code word for nuclear weapons. Prime Minister Golda Meir and her メkitchen cabinetモ made the decision
on the night of 8 October. The Israelis assembled 13 twenty-kiloton atomic bombs. The number and in fact the entire story was
later leaked by the Israelis as a great psychological warfare tool. Although most probably plutonium devices, one source reports
they were enriched uranium bombs. The Jericho missiles at Hirbat Zachariah and the nuclear strike F-4s at Tel Nof were armed
and prepared for action against Syrian and Egyptian targets. They also targeted Damascus with nuclear capable long-range artillery
although it is not certain they had nuclear artillery shells.62

U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger was notified of the alert several hours later on the morning of 9 October. The U.S. decided
to open an aerial resupply pipeline to Israel, and Israeli aircraft began picking up supplies that day. Although stockpile depletion
remained a concern, the military situation stabilized on October 8th and 9th as Israeli reserves poured into the battle and averted
disaster. Well before significant American resupply had reached Israeli forces, the Israelis counterattacked and turned the tide on
both fronts.

On 11 October, a counterattack on the Golan broke the back of Syria's offensive, and on 15 and 16 October, Israel launched a
surprise crossing of the Suez Canal into Africa. Soon the Israelis encircled the Egyptian Third Army and it was faced with
annihilation on the east bank of the Suez Canal, with no protective forces remaining between the Israeli Army and Cairo. The first
U.S. flights arrived on 14 October.63 Israeli commandos flew to Fort Benning, Georgia to train with the new American TOW
anti-tank missiles and return with a C-130 Hercules aircraft full of them in time for the decisive Golan battle. American
commanders in Germany depleted their stocks of missiles, at that time only shared with the British and West Germans, and sent
them forward to Israel.64

Thus started the subtle, opaque use of the Israeli bomb to ensure that the United States kept its pledge to maintain Israel's
conventional weapons edge over its foes.65 There is significant anecdotal evidence that Henry Kissinger told President of Egypt,
Anwar Sadat, that the reason for the U.S. airlift was that the Israelis were close to メgoing nuclear.モ66

A similar Soviet pipeline to the Arabs, equally robust, may or may not have included a ship with nuclear weapons on it, detected
from nuclear trace emissions and shadowed by the Americans from the Dardanelles. The Israelis believe that the Soviets
discovered Israeli nuclear preparations from COSMOS satellite photographs and decided to equalize the odds.67 The Soviet ship
arrived in Alexandria on either 18 or 23 October (sources disagree), and remained, without unloading, until November 1973. The
ship may have represented a Soviet guarantee to the Arab combatants to neutralize the Israeli nuclear option.68 While some others
dismiss the story completely, the best-written review article concludes that the answer is メobscure.モ Soviet premier Leonid
Brezhnev threatened, on 24 October, to airlift Soviet airborne troops to reinforce the Egyptians cut off on the eastern side of the
Suez Canal and put seven Soviet airborne divisions on alert.69 Recent evidence indicates that the Soviets sent nuclear missile
submarines also.70 Aviation Week and Space Technology magazine claimed that the two Soviet SCUD brigades deployed in
Egypt each had a nuclear warhead. American satellite photos seemed to confirm this. The U.S. passed to Israel images of trucks,
of the type used to transport nuclear warheads, parked near the launchers.71 President Nixon's response was to bring the U.S. to
worldwide nuclear alert the next day, whereupon Israel went to nuclear alert a third time.72 This sudden crisis quickly faded as
Prime Minister Meir agreed to a cease-fire, relieving the pressure on the Egyptian Third Army.

Shimon Peres had argued for a pre-war nuclear demonstration to deter the Arabs. Arab strategies and war aims in 1967 may have
been restricted because of a fear of the Israeli メbomb in the basement,モ the undeclared nuclear option. The Egyptians planned to
capture an eastern strip next to the Suez Canal and then hold. The Syrians did not aggressively commit more forces to battle or
attempt to drive through the 1948 Jordan River border to the Israeli center. Both countries seemed not to violate Israel proper and
avoided triggering one of the unstated Israeli reasons to employ nuclear weapons.73 Others discount any Arab planning based on
nuclear capabilities.74 Peres also credits Dimona with bringing Anwar Sadat to Jerusalem to make peace.75 This position was
seemingly confirmed by Sadat in a private conversation with Israeli Defense Minister Ezer Weizman.76

At the end of the Yom Kippur War (a nation shaking experience), Israel has her nuclear arsenal fully functional and tested by a
deployment. The arsenal, still opaque and unspoken, was no longer a secret, especially to the two superpowers, the United States
and the Soviet Union.

IV. 1974-1999: Bringing the Bomb up the Basement Stairs

Never Again!

- Reportedly welded on the
first Israeli nuclear bomb77

Shortly after the 1973 war, Israel allegedly fielded considerable nuclear artillery consisting of American 175 mm and 203 mm
self-propelled artillery pieces, capable of firing nuclear shells. If true, this shows that Dimona had rapidly solved the problems of
designing smaller weapons since the crude 1967 devices. If true, these low yield, tactical nuclear artillery rounds could reach at
least 25 miles. The Israeli Defense Force did have three battalions of the 175mm artillery (36 tubes), reportedly with 108 nuclear
shells and more for the 203mm tubes. Some sources describe a program to extend the range to 45 miles. They may have offered
the South Africans these low yield, miniaturized, shells described as, メthe best stuff we got.モ78 By 1976, according to one
unclassified source, the Central Intelligence Agency believed that the Israelis were using plutonium from Dimona and had 10 to 20
nuclear weapons available.79

In 1972, two Israeli scientists, Isaiah Nebenzahl and Menacehm Levin, developed a cheaper, faster uranium enrichment process. It
used a laser beam for isotope separation. It could reportedly enrich seven grams of Uranium 235 sixty percent in one day.80
Sources later reported that Israel was using both centrifuges and lasers to enrich uranium.81

Questions remained regarding full-scale nuclear weapons tests. Primitive gun assembled type devices need no testing. Researchers
can test non-nuclear components of other types separately and use extensive computer simulations. Israel received data from the
1960 French tests, and one source concludes that Israel accessed information from U.S. tests conducted in the 1950s and early
1960s. This may have included both boosted and thermonuclear weapons data.82 Underground testing in a hollowed out cavern is
difficult to detect. A West Germany Army Magazine, Wehrtechnik, in June 1976, claimed that Western reports documented a
1963 underground test in the Negev. Other reports show a test at Al-Naqab, Negev in October 1966.83

A bright flash in the south Indian Ocean, observed by an American satellite on 22 September 1979, is widely believed to be a South
Africa-Israel joint nuclear test. It was, according to some, the third test of a neutron bomb. The first two were hidden in clouds to
fool the satellite and the third was an accidentムthe weather cleared.84 Experts differ on these possible tests. Several writers
report that the scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory believed it to have been a nuclear explosion while a presidential panel
decided otherwise.85 President Carter was just entering the Iran hostage nightmare and may have easily decided not to alter 30
years of looking the other way.86 The explosion was almost certainly an Israeli bomb, tested at the invitation of the South
Africans. It was more advanced than the メgun typeモ bombs developed by the South Africans.87 One report claims it was a test of
a nuclear artillery shell.88 A 1997 Israeli newspaper quoted South African deputy foreign minister, Aziz Pahad, as confirming it
was an Israeli test with South African logistical support.89

Controversy over possible nuclear testing continues to this day. In June 1998, a Member of the Knesset accused the government
of an underground test near Eilat on May 28, 1998. Egyptian メnuclear expertsモ had made similar charges. The Israeli government
hotly denied the claims.90

Not only were the Israelis interested in American nuclear weapons development data, they were interested in targeting data from
U.S. intelligence. Israel discovered that they were on the Soviet target list. American-born Israeli spy Jonathan Pollard obtained
satellite-imaging data of the Soviet Union, allowing Israel to target accurately Soviet cities. This showed Israel's intention to use its
nuclear arsenal as a deterrent political lever, or retaliatory capability against the Soviet Union itself. Israel also used American
satellite imagery to plan the 7 June 1981 attack on the Tammuz-1 reactor at Osiraq, Iraq. This daring attack, carried out by eight
F-16s accompanied by six F-15s punched a hole in the concrete reactor dome before the reactor began operation (and just days
before an Israeli election). It delivered 15 delay-fused 2000 pound bombs deep into the reactor structure (the 16th bomb hit a
nearby hall). The blasts shredded the reactor and blew out the dome foundations, causing it to collapse on the rubble. This was
the world's first attack on a nuclear reactor.91

Since 19 September 1988, Israel has worked on its own satellite recon- naissance system to decrease reliance on U.S. sources. On
that day, they launched the Offeq-1 satellite on the Shavit booster, a system closely related to the Jericho-II missile. They
launched the satellite to the west away from the Arabs and against the earth's rotation, requiring even more thrust. The Jericho-II
missile is capable of sending a one ton nuclear payload 5,000 kilometers. Offeq-2 went up on 3 April 1990. The launch of the
Offeq-3 failed on its first attempt on 15 September 1994, but was successful 5 April 1995.92

Mordechai Vanunu provided the best look at the Israeli nuclear arsenal in 1985 complete with photographs.93 A technician from
Dimona who lost his job, Vanunu secretly took photographs, immigrated to Australia and published some of his material in the
London Sunday Times. He was subsequently kidnapped by Israeli agents, tried and imprisoned. His data shows a sophisticated
nuclear program, over 200 bombs, with boosted devices, neutron bombs, F-16 deliverable warheads, and Jericho warheads.94 The
boosted weapons shown in the Vanunu photographs show a sophistication that inferred the requirement for testing.95 He revealed
for the first time the underground plutonium separation facility where Israel was producing 40 kilograms annually, several times
more than previous estimates. Photographs showed sophisticated designs which scientific experts say enabled the Israelis to build
bombs with as little as 4 kilograms of plutonium. These facts have increased the estimates of total Israeli nuclear stockpiles (see
Appendix A).96 In the words of one American, メ[the Israelis] can do anything we or the Soviets can do.モ97 Vanunu not only
made the technical details of the Israeli program and stockpile public but in his wake, Israeli began veiled official acknowledgement
of the potent Israeli nuclear deterrent. They began bringing the bomb up the basement stairs if not out of the basement.

Israel went on full-scale nuclear alert again on the first day of Desert Storm, 18 January 1991. Seven SCUD missiles were fired
against the cities of Tel Aviv and Haifa by Iraq (only two actually hit Tel Aviv and one hit Haifa). This alert lasted for the
duration of the war, 43 days. Over the course of the war, Iraq launched around 40 missiles in 17 separate attacks at Israel. There
was little loss of life: two killed directly, 11 indirectly, with many structures damaged and life disrupted.98 Several supposedly
landed near Dimona, one of them a close miss.99 Threats of retaliation by the Shamir government if the Iraqis used chemical
warheads were interpreted to mean that Israel intended to launch a nuclear strike if gas attacks occurred. One Israeli commentator
recommended that Israel should signal Iraq that メany Iraqi action against Israeli civilian populations, with or without gas, may
leave Iraq without Baghdad.モ100 Shortly before the end of the war the Israelis tested a メnuclear capableモ missile which prompted
the United States into intensifying its SCUD hunting in western Iraq to prevent any Israeli response.101 The Israeli Air Force set
up dummy SCUD sites in the Negev for pilots to practice onムthey found it no easy task.102 American government concessions
to Israel for not attacking (in addition to Israeli Patriot missile batteries) were:

Allowing Israel to designate 100 targets inside Iraq for the coalition to destroy,
Satellite downlink to increase warning time on the SCUD attacks (present and future),
メTechnical parity with Saudi jet fighters in perpetuity.モ103

All of this validated the nuclear arsenal in the minds of the Israelis. In particular the confirmed
capability of Arab states without a border with Israel, the so-called メsecond tierモ states, to reach
out and touch Israel with ballistic missiles confirmed Israel's need for a robust first strike
capability.104 Current military contacts between Israel and India, another nuclear power, bring up questions of nuclear
cooperation.105 Pakistani sources have already voiced concerns over a possible joint Israeli-Indian attack on Pakistan's nuclear
facilities.106 A recent Parameters article speculated on Israel's willingness to furnish nuclear capabilities or assistance to certain
states, such as Turkey.107 A retired Israeli Defense Force Chief of Staff, Lieutenant General Amnon Shahak, has declared, メall
methods are acceptable in withholding nuclear capabilities from an Arab state.モ108

As the Israeli bomb comes out of the basement, open discussion, even in Israel, is occurring on why the Israelis feel they need an
arsenal not used in at least two if not three wars. Avner Cohen states: メIt [Israel] must be in a position to threaten another
Hiroshima to prevent another holocaust.モ109 In July 1998 Shimon Peres was quoted in the Jordan Times as saying, メWe have
built a nuclear option, not in order to have a Hiroshima, but to have an Oslo,モ110 referring to the peace process.

One list of current reasons for an Israeli nuclear capability is:

To deter a large conventional attack,
To deter all levels of unconventional (chemical, biological, nuclear) attacks,
To preempt enemy nuclear attacks,
To support conventional preemption against enemy nuclear assets,
To support conventional preemption against enemy non-nuclear (conventional, chemical, biological) assets,
For nuclear warfighting,
The メSamson Optionモ (last resort destruction).111

The most alarming of these is the nuclear warfighting. The Israelis have developed, by several accounts, low yield neutron bombs
able to destroy troops with minimal damage to property.112 In 1990, during the Second Gulf War, an Israeli reserve major general
recommended to America that it メuse non-contaminating tactical nuclear weaponsモ against Iraq.113 Some have speculated that the
Israelis will update their nuclear arsenal to メmicronukesモ and メtinynukesモ which would be very useful to attack point targets and
other tactical or barrier (mining) uses.114 These would be very useful for hardened deeply buried command and control facilities
and for airfield destruction without exposing Israeli pilots to combat.115 Authors have made the point that Israeli professional
military schools do not teach nuclear tactics and would not use them in the close quarters of Israel. Many Israeli officers have
attended American military schools where they learned tactical use in crowded Europe.116

However, Jane's Intelligence Review has recently reported an Israeli review of nuclear strategy with a shift from tactical nuclear
warheads to long range missiles.117 Israel always has favored the long reach, whether to Argentina for Adolph Eichmann, to Iraq
to strike a reactor, Entebbe for hostages, Tunisia to hit the PLO, or by targeting the Soviet Union's cities. An esteemed Israeli
military author has speculated that Israel is pursuing an R&D program to provide MIRVs (multiple independent reentry vehicles)
on their missiles.118

The government of Israel recently ordered three German Dolphin Class 800 submarine, to be delivered in late 1999. Israel will then
have a second strike capability with nuclear cruise missiles, and this capability could well change the nuclear arms race in the
Middle East.119 Israeli rhetoric on the new submarines labels them メnational deterrentモ assets. Projected capabilities include a
submarine-launched nuclear missile with a 350-kilometer range.120 Israel has been working on sea launch capability for missiles
since the 1960s.121 The first basing options for the new second-strike force of nuclear missile capable submarines include Oman,
an Arab nation with unofficial Israeli relations, located strategically near Iran.122 A report indicates that the Israel Defense
Ministry has formally gone to the government with a request to authorize a retaliatory nuclear strike if Israel was hit with first
strike nuclear weapons. This report comes in the wake of a recent Iran Shihab-3 missile test and indications to Israel that Iran is
two to three years from a nuclear warhead.123 Israeli statements stress that Iran's nuclear potential would be problem to all and
would require メAmerican leadership, with serious participation of the G-7 . . . .モ124

A recent study highlighted Israel's extreme vulnerability to a first strike and an accompanying vulnerability even to a false alarm.125
Syria's entire defense against Israel seems to rest on chemical weapons and warheads.126 One scenario involves Syria making a
quick incursion into the Golan and then threatening chemical strikes, perhaps with a new, more lethal (protective-mask-penetrable)
Russian nerve gas if Israel resists.127 Their use would drive Israel to nuclear use. Israeli development of an anti- missile defense,
the Arrow, a fully fielded (30-50128) Jericho II ballistic missile, and the soon-to-arrive strategic submarine force, seems to have
produced a coming change in defense force structure. The Israeli newspaper Ha'aretz, quotes the Israeli Chief of Staff discussing
the establishment of a メstrategic command to . . . prepare an adequate response to the long term threats. . . モ129

The 1994 accord with Jordan, allowing limited Israeli military presence in Jordanian skies, could make the flying distance to several
potential adversaries considerably shorter.130 Israel is concerned about Iran's desire to obtain nuclear weapons and become a
regional leader, coupled with large numbers of Shiite Moslems in southern Lebanon. The Israeli Air Force commanding general
issued a statement saying Israel would メconsider an attackモ if any country gets メclose to achieving a nuclear capability.モ131 The
Israelis are obviously considering actions capable of stopping such programs and are buying aircraft such as the F-15I with
sufficient operational range. At the first delivery of these 4,000 kilometer range fighters, the Israeli comment was, メthe aircraft
would help counter a growing nuclear threat.モ132 They consider such regional nation nuclear programs to be a sufficient cause for
war. Their record of accomplishment is clear: having hit the early Iraqi nuclear effort, they feel vindicated by Desert Storm. They
also feel that only the American and Israeli nuclear weapons kept Iraq's Saddam Hussein from using chemical or biological weapons
against Israel.133

Israel, like Iran, has desires of regional power. The 1956 alliance with France and Britain might have been a first attempt at regional
hegemony. Current debate in the Israeli press considers offering Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, and perhaps Syria (after a peace
agreement) an Israeli nuclear umbrella of protection.134 A nuclear Iran or Iraq might use its nuclear weapons to protect some states
in the region, threaten others, and attempt to control oil prices.135

Another speculative area concerns Israeli nuclear security and possible misuse. What is the chain of decision and control of Israel's
weapons? How susceptible are they to misuse or theft? With no open, frank, public debate on nuclear issues, there has
accordingly been no debate or information on existing safeguards. This has led to accusations of メmonolithic views and sinister
intentions.モ1360 Would a right wing military government decide to employ nuclear weapons recklessly? Ariel Sharon, an
outspoken proponent of メGreater Israelモ was quoted as saying, メArabs may have the oil, but we have the matches.モ137 Could the
Gush Emunim, a right wing religious organization, or others, hijack a nuclear device to メliberateモ the Temple Mount for the
building of the third temple? Chances are small but could increase as radicals decry the peace process.138 A 1997 article reviewing
the Israeli Defense Force repeatedly stressed the possibilities of, and the need to guard against, a religious, right wing military
coup, especially as the proportion of religious in the military increases.139

Israel is a nation with a state religion, but its top leaders are not religious Jews. The intricacies of Jewish religious politics and
rabbinical law do affect their politics and decision processes. In Jewish law, there are two types of war, one obligatory and
mandatory (milkhemet mitzvah) and the one authorized but optional (milkhemet reshut).140 The labeling of Prime Minister
Begin's メPeace for Galileeモ operation as a milchemet brera (メwar of choiceモ) was one of the factors causing it to lose support.141
Interpretation of Jewish law concerning nuclear weapons does not permit their use for mutual assured destruction. However, it
does allow possession and threatening their use, even if actual use is not justifiable under the law. Interpretations of the law allow
tactical use on the battlefield, but only after warning the enemy and attempting to make peace. How much these intricacies affect
Israeli nuclear strategy decisions is unknown.142

The secret nature of the Israeli nuclear program has hidden the increasing problems of the aging Dimona reactor and adverse worker
health effects. Information is only now public as former workers sue the government. This issue is now linked to continued
tritium production for the boosted anti-tank and anti-missile nuclear warheads that Israeli continues to need. Israel is attempting to
obtain a new, more efficient, tritium production technology developed in India.143

One other purpose of Israeli nuclear weapons, not often stated, but obvious, is their メuseモ on the United States. America does not
want Israel's nuclear profile raised.144 They have been used in the past to ensure America does not desert Israel under increased
Arab, or oil embargo, pressure and have forced the United States to support Israeli diplomatically against the Soviet Union. Israel
used their existence to guarantee a continuing supply of American conventional weapons, a policy likely to continue.145

Regardless of the true types and numbers (see Appendix A) of Israeli nuclear weapons, they have developed a sophisticated
system, by myriad methods, and are a nuclear power to be reckoned with. Their nuclear ambiguity has served their purposes well
but Israel is entering a different phase of visibility even as their nuclear capability is entering a new phase. This new visibility may
not be in America's interest.146 Many are predicting the Israeli nuclear arsenal will become less useful メout of the basementモ and
possibly spur a regional arms race. If so, Israel has a 5-10 year lead time at present before mutual assured destruction, Middle East
style, will set in. Would regional mutual second strike capability, easier to acquire than superpower mutual second strike
capability, result in regional stability? Some think so.147 Current Israeli President Ezer Weizman has stated メthe nuclear issue is
gaining momentum [and the] next war will not be conventional.148

Appendix A

Estimates of the Israeli Nuclear Arsenal

Notes

1. Hersh, Seymour M., The Samson Option. Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991), 223.

2. Aronson, Slomo and Brosh, Oded, The Politics and Strategy of Nuclear Weapons in the Middle East, the Opacity Theory, and Reality,
1960-1991-An Israeli Perspective (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1992), 20.

3. Karsh, Efraim, Between War and Peace: Dilemmas of Israeli Security (London, England: Frank Cass, 1996), 82.

4. Cohen, Avner, Israel and the Bomb (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 16.

5. Cordesman, Anthony, Perilous Prospects: The Peace Process and the Arab-Israeli Military Balance (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1996),
118.

6. Pry, Peter, Israel's Nuclear Arsenal (Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1984), 5-6.

7. Quoted in Weissman, Steve and Krosney, Herbert. The Islamic Bomb: The Nuclear Threat to Israel and the Middle East. (New York, New York:
Times Books, 1981), 105.

8. メFormer Official Says France Helped Build Israel's Dimona Complex.モ Nucleonics Week October 16, 1986, 6.

9. Milhollin, Gary, メHeavy Water Cheaters.モ Foreign Policy (1987-88): 101-102.

10. Cordesman, 1991, 127.

11. Federation of American Scientists, メIsrael's Nuclear Weapons Program.モ 10 December 1997, n.p. On-line. Internet, 27 October 1998. Available from
http://www.fas.org/nuke/hew/Israel/Isrhist.html.

12. Nashif, Taysir N., Nuclear Weapons in Israel (New Delhi: S. B. Nangia Books, 1996), 3.

13. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 48-49.

14. Bennett, Jeremy, The Suez Crisis. BBC Video. n.d. Videocassette and Raviv, Dan and Melman, Yossi. Every Spy a Prince. The Complete
History of Israel's Intelligence Community. (Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990), 63-69.

15. Weissman and Krosney, 112.

16. メRevealed: The Secrets of Israel's Nuclear Arsenalモ (London) Sunday Times No. 8,461, 5 October 1986, 1, 4-5.

17. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 57-59.

18. Peres, Shimon, Battling for Peace. A Memoir (New York, New York: Random House, 1995), 122.

19. Pry, 10.

20. Loftus, John and Aarons, Mark, The Secret War Against the Jews. How Western Espionage Betrayed the Jewish People (New York, New York: St.
Martin's Griffin, 1994), 287-303.

21. Green, Stephen, Taking Sides. America's Secret Relations with a Militant Israel (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1984), 152.

22. Cohen, Avner, メMost Favored Nation.モ The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 51, no. 1 (January-February 1995): 44-53.

23. Hersh, The Samson Option, 196.

24. See Cohen, Avner, メIsrael's Nuclear History: The Untold Kennedy-Eshkol Dimona Correspondence.モ Journal of Israeli History, 1995 16, no. 2,
159-194 and Cohen, Avner, Comp. メRecently Declassified 1963 Correspondence between President Kennedy and Prime Ministers Ben-Gurion and
Eshkol.モ Journal of Israeli History, 1995 16, no. 2, 195-207. Much of the documentation has been posted to http:\\www.seas.gwu.edu/nsarchive/israel.

25. Weissman and Krosney, op. cit.,114-117

26. Cohen, op. cit., Israel and the Bomb, 82-83.

27. Spector, Leonard S., The Undeclared Bomb (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ballinger Publishers, 1988), 387 (n.22).

28. Quoted in Stevens, Elizabeth. メIsrael's Nuclear WeaponsムA Case Study.モ 14 pages. On line. Internet, 23 October 1998. Available from
http://infomanage.com/nonproliferation/najournal/israelinucs.html.

29. Green, Taking Sides, 148-179 and Raviv, Dan and Melman, Yossi, 1990, 197-198.

30. Weissman and Krosney, 119-124.

31. Black, Ian and Morris, Benny, Israel's Secret Wars. A history of Israel's Intelligence Services (New York, New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1991),
418-419.

32. Hersh, 257.

33. Green, Stephen, Living by the Sword: America and Israel in the Middle East, 1968-1987 (London: Faber, 1988), 63-80.

34. Cordesman, 1991, 120.

35. Weissman and Krosney, 124-128 and Raviv, Dan and Melman, Yossi, 1990, 198-199.

36. Spector, The Undeclared Bomb, 395(n. 57).98-199

37. Raviv, Dan and Melman, Yossi, 1990, 58.

38. Milhollin, 100-119.

39. Stanghelle, Harold, メIsrael to sell back 10.5 tons.モ Arbeiderbladet, Oslo, Norway, 28 June 1990 in: Center for Nonproliferation Studies, メNuclear
Developments,モ 28 June 1990, 34-35; on-line, Internet 22 November 1998, available from http://cns.miis.edu.

40. Hersh, op. cit., 139.

41. Center for Nonproliferation Studies. メIsraeli Friends,モ ISIS Report, May 1994, 4; on-line, Internet 22 November 1998, available from
http://cns.miis.edu.

42. Abecasis, Rachel, メUranium reportedly offered to China, Israel.モ Radio Renascenca, Lisbon, 9 December 1992 quoted in Center for
Nonproliferation, メProliferation Issues,モ 23 December, 1992, 25; on-line, Internet 22 November 1998, available from http://cns.miis.edu.

43. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, op. cit., 231-232 and 256-257.

44. Nordeen, Lon O., Nicolle, David, Phoenix over the Nile (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1996), 192-193.

45. O'Balance, Edgar, The Third Arab-Israeli War (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), 54.

46. Brecher, Michael, Decision in Crisis. Israel, 1967 and 1973 (Berkley, California: University of California Press, 1980), 104, 230-231.

47. Cohen, Avner. メCairo, Dimona, and the June 1967 War.モ Middle East Journal 50, no. 2 (Spring 1996), 190-210.

48. Creveld, Martin van. The Sword and the Olive. A Critical History of the Israeli Defense Force (New York, New York: Public Affairs, 1998), 174.

49. Burrows, William E. and Windrem, Robert, Critical Mass. The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in a Fragmenting World (New York, New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1994), 282-283.

50. Aronson, Shlomo, Israel's Nuclear Options, ACIS Working Paper No. 7. Los Angeles, California: University of California Center for Arms
Control and International Security, 1977, 3, and Sorenson, David S., メMiddle East Regional Studies-AY99,モ Air War College: Maxwell Air Force Base,
AL, 542.

51. Hersh, op. cit., 126-128.

52. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, op. cit., 210-213.

53. Spector, Leonard S., メForeign-Supplied Combat Aircraft: Will They Drop the Third World Bomb?モ Journal of International Affairs 40, no.
1(1986): 145 (n. 5) and Green, Living by the Sword, op. cit., 18-19.

54. Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 280.

55. Cohen, op. cit., Israel and the Bomb, 237.

56. Ibid., 273-274.

57. Milhollin, op. cit., 103-104.

58. Raviv, Dan and Melman, Yossi, Friend in Deed: Inside the U.S.-Israel Alliance (New York New York: Hyperion, 1994), 299.

59. Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 464-465 and Raviv, Dan and Melman, Yossi, op. cit., 1990, 304-305.

60. Spector, The Undeclared Bomb, op. cit., 179.

61. Dowty, Alan. メIsrael and Nuclear Weapons.モ Midstream 22, no. 7 (November 1976), 8-9.

62. Hersh, op. cit., 217, 222-226, and Weissman and Krosney, op. cit., 107.

63. Green, op. cit., Living by the Sword, 90-99.

64. Loftus and Aarons, op. cit., 316-317.

65 Smith, Gerard C. and Cobban, Helena. メA Blind Eye To Nuclear Proliferation.モ Foreign Affairs 68, no. 3(1989), 53-70.

66. Hersh, op. cit., 230-231.

67. O'Balance, Edgar, No Victor, No Vanquished. The Yom Kippur War (San Rafael, California: Presido Press, 1978), 175.

68. Ibid., 234-235 and Aronson, S, op. cit., 15-18.

69. Spector, The Undeclared Bomb, op. cit., 396 (n. 62); Garthoff, Raymond L., D師ente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to
Reagan (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institute, 1994), 426, n76 and Bandmann, Yona and Cordova, Yishai. メThe Soviet Nuclear Threat Towards the
Close of the Yom Kippur War.モ Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 1980 5, no. 1, 107-9.

70. Cherkashin, Nikolai, メOn Moscow's Orders.モ Russian Life, 39, no. 10 (October 1996), 13-15.

71. Brownlow, Cecil. メSoviets poise three-front global drive. Nuclear weapons in Egypt, artillery buildup at Guantanamo, Communist concentrations in
Vietnam aimed at political gains.モ Aviation Week and Space Technology 99, no. 19 (5 November 1973), 12-14; Holt, Robert. メSoviet Power Play.モ
Aviation Week and Space Technology 99, no. 19 (5 November 1973), 7 and Gur-Arieh, Danny, メA non-Conventional Look at Israel During '73 War.モ
IsraelWire Tuesday, October 6, 1998 17, 23; on-line, Internet 20 November 1998, available from http://www.israelwire.com/new/981006/9810068.html.

72. Hersh, op. cit., 321-235.

73. Creveld, 1998, op. cit., 220-221.

74. Evron, Yair, Israel's Nuclear Dilemma (Ithaca, New York: Cornell Publishing, 1994), 62-74.

75. Cohen, Avner, メPeres: Peacemaker, Nuclear Pioneer.モ The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 52, no. 3 (May/June 1996), 16-17 and Aronson, S,
op. cit., 11-12.

76. Karsh, op. cit., 86.

77. Quoted in Hersh, op. cit., 180 and Stevens, op. cit., 1-14.

78. Hersh, op. cit., 216, 276 and Kaku, Michio. メContingency Plans: Nuclear Weapons after the Cold War.モ In Altered States: A Reader in the New
World Order, Bennis, Phyllis and Moushabeck, Michel, Eds. (New York, New York: 1993), 66.

79. Weissman and Krosney, op. cit., 109.

80. Gillette, Robert, メUranium Enrichment: Rumors of Israeli Progress with Lasers.モ Science 183, no. 4130 (22 March 1974), 1172-1174.

81. Barnaby, Frank, The Invisible Bomb: The Nuclear Arms Race in the Middle East (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988), 25.

82. メIsrael: The Covert Connection.モ Frontline, PBS Network, May 16, 1989, quoted in Spector, Leonard S., and McDonough, Mark G., with
Medeiros, Evan S., Tracking Nuclear Proliferation. A Guide in Maps and Charts, 1995 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace, 1995).

83. Nashif, Taysir N., Nuclear Weapons in the Middle East: Dimensions and Responsibilities (Princeton, New Jersey: Kingston Press, 1984), 22-23.

84. Hersh, op. cit., 216.

85. Barnaby, Frank, メCapping Israel's Nuclear Volcano,モ Between War and Peace. Dilemmas of Israeli Security, edited by Efraim Karsh (London,
England: Frank Cass, 1996), 98.

86. Hersh, op. cit., 271-275.

87. Nashif, op. cit., 32.

88. Gaffney, Mark, Dimona: The Third Temple? The Story Behind the Vanunu Revelation (Brattleboro, Vermont: Amana Books, 1989), 100-101.

89. Pedatzur, Re'uven, メSouth African Statement On Nuclear Test Said to Serve Israel,モ Ha'aretz, 29 July 1997. On line: Internet, 22 November 1998
and Kelley, Robert. メThe Iraqi and South African Nuclear Wモ儂uclear Abstracts," 1 March 1996, or on-line, Internet, 22 November 1998, both available
from http://cns.miis.edu.

90. メWas there a Nuclear Test near Eilat?モ IsraelWire, 16 June 1998, or on line Internet, 22 November, 1998, available from http://www.israelwire.com
and メDeputy Defense Minister Denies Israeli Nuclear Testing.モ Israeli Wire, June 18, 1998, or on-line. Internet, 13 October 1998, available from
http://www.israelwire.com/New/980618/9806184.html.

91. McKinnon, Dan. Bullseye One Reactor. The Story of Israel's Bold Surprise Air Attack That Destroyed Iraqi's Nuclear Bomb Facility (Shrewsbury,
England: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1987).

92. メRussian Foreign Intelligence Service, Report on the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Moscow, 1993.モ Journal of Palestine Studies
XXII, no. 4 (Summer 1993): 135-140; Creveld, Martin van, Nuclear Proliferation and the Future Of Conflict (New York: The Free Press, 1993), 105;
and Clark, Philip. メ儺hird successful Israeli satellite launch.モ Jane's Intelligence Review 7, no. 6 (June 1995), 25-26.

93. Sunday Times, London, op. cit., 1,4-5.

94. Toscano, Louis, Triple Cross: Israel, the Atomic Bomb and the Man Who Spilled the Secrets (New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1990).

95. Green, Living by the Sword, op. cit., 134.

96. Spector, The Undeclared Bomb, op. cit., 165-166.

97. Hersh, op. cit., 291.

98. Levran, Aharon, Israeli Strategy after Desert Storm: Lessons from the Second Gulf War (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 1-10.

99. Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 278.

100. Cohen, Avner and Miller, Marvin, Nuclear Shadows in the Middle East: Prospects for Arms Control in the Wake of the Gulf Crisis (Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1990), 10.

101. Aronson and Brosh, op. cit., 276.

102. Raviv and Melman, op. cit., 399.

103. Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 297n and Creveld, 1998, op. cit., 321-322.

104. Levran, op. cit., 8-10.

105. Ahmar, Moonis, メPakistan and Israel: Distant Adversaries or Neighbors?モ Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, 1996, 20, no.1,
43-44.

106. メNuclear proliferation didn't start in 1998 . . .and not in Pakistan nor with Islam,モ Middle East Realities, or on-line, Internet, 21 September 1998,
available from http://www.middleeast.org/1998_06_28.htm.

107. Garrity, Patrick J. メThe Next Nuclear Questions.モ Parameters, XXV, no. 4 (Winter 1995-96), 92-111.

108. Cohen, Eliezer. Israel's best defense: the First Full Story of the Israeli Air Force, (New York, New York: Random House, 1993), 495.

109. Cohen and Miller, op. cit., 18.

110. メBefore Meeting with King, Peres Claims Israel's Nuclear Arsenal was built for Peace,モ Jordan Times, July 14, 1998. Quoted in Sorenson, op. cit.,
542.

111. Beres, Louis Rene, メIsrael's Bomb in the Basement: A revisiting of `Deliberate Ambiguity' vs. `Disclosure', Between War and Peace: Dilemmas of
Israeli Security, edited by Efraim Harsh (London, England: Frank Cass, 1996), 113-133.

112. Hersh, op. cit., 319.

113. Amos, Deborah, Lines in the Sand: Desert Storm and the Remaking of the Arab World (New York, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 105.

114. Dowler, Thomas W. and Howard II, Joseph H., メCountering the threat of the well-armed tyrant: A modest proposal for small nuclear weapons,モ
Strategic Review, XIX, no. 4 (Fall 1991), 34-40.

115. Beres, Louis Rene, メIsrael's bomb in the basement: A revisiting of `Deliberate Ambiguity' vs. `Disclosure.' モ In Karsh, Efraim, op. cit., Editor,
Between War and Peace: Dilemmas of Israeli Security (London, England: Frank Cass, 1996), 116.

116. Cordesman, op. cit., 1996, 265.

117. Hough, Harold, メIsrael reviews its nuclear deterrent,モ Jane's Intelligence Review 10, no.11 (November 1998), 11-13.

118. Creveld, op. cit., 1993, 105.

119. Burrows, and Windrem, op. cit., 311-312 and メIsrael begins test of nuclear missile submarines,モ The Irish Times, July 2, 1998, or on-line, Internet,
24 December 1998, available from http://www.irish-times.com/irish-times/paper/1998/0702/wor13.html.

120. Melman, Yossi, メSwimming with the Dolphins,モ Ha'aretz, Tuesday, June 9, 1998, and メReport: Israel to get Subs with Nuclear Strike Capability,モ
Jerusalem Post, I July 3, 1998, 3 and Sorenson, op. cit., 543.

121. Raviv, Dan and Melman, Yossi, op. cit., 1990, 344-345, 422-423.

122. Shahak, Israel, Open Secrets: Israeli Nuclear and Foreign Policies (London: Pluto Press, 1997), 72-73.

123. Davis, Douglas, メDefense Officials Said Urging Nuclear Second-Strike Capability,モ Jerusalem Post, 6 August 1998, 3; or on-line, Internet, 22
November 1998, available from http://cns.miis.edu.

124. Inbar, Efraim, メIsrael's security in a new international environment,モ in Karsh, Efraim, Editor, Between War and Peace: Dilemmas of Israeli Security
(London, England: Frank Cass, 1996), 41.

125. Hough, Harold, メCould Israel's Nuclear Assets Survive a First Strike?モ Jane's Intelligence Review, September 1997, 407-410.

126. Terrill, W. Andrew, メThe Chemical Warfare Legacy of the Yemen War.モ Comparative Strategy, 10 (1991), 109-119.

127. Boyne, Sean, メAcross the Great Divide. Will Assad go for the Golan?モ Jane's Intelligence Review, 10, no. 4 (April 1998), 21-24 and Cordesman,
1996, op. cit., 254.

128. Cordesman, op. cit., 1996, 243.

129, Harel, Amos and Barzilai, Amnon, メMordechai says Arrow alone cannot protect against missiles,モ Ha'aretz, 13 January 1999, or on-line, Internet,
13 January 1999, available from http://www3.haaretz.co.il/eng/htmls/3_9.htm

130. Shahak, op. cit., 78-79.

131. Chubin, Shahram, メDoes Iran Want Nuclear Weapons?モ Survival 37, no. 1 (Spring 1995), 91-93.

132. O'Sullivan, Arich, メNew F-15I Warplanes Expand Israel's Reach,モ The Jerusalem Post, 19 January 1997, or on-line, Internet 22 November 1998,
available from http://www.jpost.co.il.

133. Karsh, op. cit., 9.

134. Shahak, op. cit., 4-5.

135. Garrity, op. cit., 92-111.

136. Dowty, op. cit., 8.

137. Gaffney, op. cit., 165.

138. Ibid., 37-38 and Friedman, Robert I. Zealots for Zion: Inside Israel's West Bank Settlement Movement (New York, New York: Random House,
1992), 132-52.

139. Blanche, Ed, メIs the Myth Fading for the Israeli Army? ム Part 1.モ Jane's Intelligence Review, 8, no. 12 (December 1996), 547-550 and Blanche,
Ed. メIs the myth fading for the Israeli Army? ム Part 2,モ Jane's Intelligence Review 9, no. 1 (January 1997), 25-28.

140. Cohen, Stuart A., The Scroll or the Sword? Dilemmas of Religion and Military Service in Israel (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Harwood Academic
Publishers, 1997), 11-24.

141. Creveld, op. cit., 1998, 298.

142. Broyde, Michael J., メFighting the War and the Peace: Battlefield Ethics, Peace Talks, Treaties, and Pacifism in the Jewish Tradition,モ or on-line,
Internet, 20 November 1998, available from http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/war3.html.

143. Hough, Harold, op. cit., 1998, 11-12 and Berger, Julian, メCourt Fury At Israeli Reactor.モ Guardian, 13 October 1997, in Center for
Nonproliferation, メNuclear Abstracts,モ 13 October 1997, or on-line, Internet, 22 November 1998, available from http://cns.miis.edu.

144. Creveld, op. cit., 1998, 252.

145. Valry, Nicholas, メIsrael's Silent Gamble with the Bomb,モ New Scientist (12 December 1974), 807-09.

146. Harden, Major James D., Israeli Nuclear Weapons and War in the Middle East, Master's Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA,
December 1997.

147. Dowdy, op. cit., 20.

148. Aronson, Geoffrey, メHidden Agenda: US-Israeli Relations and the Nuclear Question,モ Middle East Journal, 46, no. 4 (Autumn 1992), 619-630.

149. Data from Time, 12 April 1976, quoted in Weissman and Krosney, op. cit., 107.

150. Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 280 and Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, op. cit., 273-274.

151. Tahtinen, Dale R., The Arab-Israel Military Balance Today (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1973), 34.

152. メHow Israel Got the Bomb.モ Time, 12 April 1976, 39.

153. Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 302.

154. Kaku, op. cit., 66 and Hersh, op. cit., 216.

155. Val屍y, op. cit., 807-09.

156. Data from CIA, quoted in Weissman and Krosney, op. cit., 109.

157. Ottenberg, Michael, メEstimating Israel's Nuclear Capabilities,モ Command, 30 (October 1994), 6-8.

158. Pry, op. cit., 75.

159. Ibid., 111.

160. Data from NBC Nightly News, quoted in Milhollin, op. cit., 104 and Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 308.

161. Data from Vanunu quoted in Milhollin, op. cit., 104.

162. Harkavy, Robert E. メAfter the Gulf War: The Future of the Israeli Nuclear Strategy,モ The Washington Quarterly (Summer 1991), 164.

163. Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 308.

164. Albright, David, Berkhout, Frans and Walker, William, Plutonium and Highly Enriched Uranium 1996. World Inventories, Capabilities, and
Policies (New York: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute And Oxford University Press, 1997), 262-263.

165. Hough, Harold, メIsrael's Nuclear Infrastructure,モ Jane's Intelligence Review 6, no. 11 (November 1994), 508.

166. Ibid., 262-263.

167. Spector, and McDonough, with Medeiros, op. cit., 135.

168. Burrows and Windrem, op. cit., 283-284.

169. Cordesman, op. cit., 1996, 234.

170. Ibid., 234.

171. Ibid., 230, 243.

172. Brower, Kenneth S., メA Propensity for Conflict: Potential Scenarios and Outcomes of War in the Middle East,モ Jane's Intelligence Review, Special
Report no. 14, (February 1997), 14-15.

173. Albright, Berkhout, and Walker, op. cit., 262-263.

USAF Counterproliferation Center

The USAF Counterproliferation Center was established in 1998 to provide education and research to the present and future leaders
of the USAF, and thereby help them better prepare to counter the threat from weapons of mass destruction.

Barry R. Schneider, Director
USAF Counterproliferation Center
325 Chennault Circle
Maxwell AFB AL 36112-6427k

(334) 953-7538 (DSN (493-7538)

Email: Barry.Schneider@maxwell,af.mil


http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/cpc-pubs/farr.htm

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